Taste Sensation

            The gustatory system or sense of taste is the sensory system that is partially responsible for the perception of taste. Taste is the perception produced or stimulated when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue.

Taste is associated mainly with the tongue, although there are taste (gustatory) receptors on the palate and epiglottis as well. The surface of the tongue, along with the rest of the oral cavity, is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium. In the surface of the tongue are raised bumps, called papilla, that contain the taste buds. There are three types of papilla, based on their appearance: vallate, foliate, and fungiform.

The number of taste buds within papillae varies, with each bud containing several specialized taste cells (gustatory receptor cells) for the transduction of taste stimuli. These receptor cells release neurotransmitters when certain chemicals in ingested substances (such as food) are carried to their surface in saliva. Neurotransmitter from the gustatory cells can activate the sensory neurons in the facial and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves.

Primary taste sensation:

            The first, salty, is simply the sense of Na⁺ concentration in the saliva. As the Na⁺ concentration becomes high outside the taste cells, a strong concentration gradient drives their diffusion into the cells. This depolarizes the cells, leading them to release neurotransmitter.

The sour taste is transduced similar to that of salty, except that it is a response to the H⁺ concentration released from acidic substances (those with low pH), instead of a response to Na⁺. For example, orange juice, which contains citric acid, will taste sour because it has a pH value of about 3. Of course, it is often sweetened so that the sour taste is masked. As the concentration of the hydrogen ions increases because of ingesting acidic compounds, the depolarization of specific taste cells increases.

The sweet taste is the sensitivity of taste cells to the presence of glucose dissolved in the saliva. Molecules that are similar in structure to glucose will have a similar effect on the sensation of sweetness.

The bitter taste can be stimulated by a large number of molecules collectively known as alkaloids. Alkaloids are essentially the opposite of acids, they contain basic (in the sense of pH) nitrogen atoms within their structures. Most alkaloids originate from plant sources, with common examples being hops (in beer), tannins (in wine), tea, aspirin, and similar molecules. Coffee contains alkaloids and is slightly acidic, with the alkaloids contributing the bitter taste to coffee.

The taste known as umami is often referred to as the savory taste. The name was created by the Japanese researcher who originally described it. Like sweet and bitter, it is based on the activation of G-protein coupled receptors, in this case by amino acids, especially glutamine. Thus, umami might be considered the taste of proteins, and is most associated with meat containing dishes.

Gustatory Nerve Impulse:

            Once the taste cells are activated by molecules liberated from the things we ingest, they release neurotransmitters onto the dendrites of sensory neurons. These neurons are part of the facial and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves, as well as a component within the vagus nerve dedicated to the gag reflex. The facial nerve connects to taste buds in the anterior third of the tongue. The glossopharyngeal nerve connects to taste buds in the posterior two thirds of the tongue. The vagus nerve connects to taste buds in the extreme posterior of the tongue, verging on the pharynx, which are more sensitive to noxious stimuli like bitterness.

Axons from the three cranial nerves carrying taste information travel to the medulla. From there much of the information is carried to the thalamus and then routed to the primary gustatory cortex, located near the inferior margin of the post-central gyrus. It is the primary gustatory cortex that is responsible for our sensations of taste. And, although this region receives significant input from taste buds, it is likely that it also receives information about the smell and texture of food, all contributing to our overall taste experience. The nuclei in the medulla also send projections to the hypothalamus and amygdalae, which are involved in autonomic reflexes such as gagging and salivation.